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Without question wildfowl are
amongst the most fascinating of all nature's creatures. From the
diminutive teal to the great grey geese, they are birds which
have captured man's imagination since the beginning of history.
The wonder of their annual migrations, the romance of their wild
habitats, the orderly social patterns of their daily routines and
the fact that they normally flight during those magic hours at
dawn and dusk combine to explain the allurement which the family
ANATIDAE exercises over those of us who call ourselves
wildfowlers.
Unlike some branches of shooting sport, wildfowling is
characterised by the absolute necessity of fully understanding
the habits and habitat of the quarry species. Whereas the
gentleman enjoying a day on a formal covert shoot need not
concern himself with the mechanics of pheasant production, every
fowler must become thoroughly steeped in the natural history of
wildfowl if ever he is to come to terms with the geese and duck
of the marsh. It is no accident that so many of the greatest
naturalists, artists and wildlife photographers are also
wildfowlers. All of those interests share a common basis of
knowledge and each is enhanced by a fascinating blend of love and
sympathy for the birds themselves.
It is for this reason that no excuse is necessary for placing a
chapter about the natural history and identification of the
quarry before any consideration of guns and cartridges.
NATURAL HISTORY
Members of the family ANATIDAE (swans, geese and duck) have many
common characteristics which distinguish them from other groups
of birds. Most have short legs with webbed feet and their flight
pattern is typically one of strong continuous wing beats with the
long neck outstretched. This flight pattern helps the fowler to
identify a flying bird as a wildfowl species while variations
within the general pattern provide keys by which individual
species can be recognised.
Plumage and Moulting
There are two quite distinct types of plumage characteristics to
be found amongst swans, geese and duck. Most swans and geese, on
the one hand, display almost identical plumage in both the males
and the females of a species with the result that it is
exceedingly difficult to tell the sex of an individual from the
feather coloration alone. In contrast, the majority of duck
species exhibit a degree of sexual dimorphism in their adult
plumage so that the sexes may be fairly readily distinguished.
The males of dabbling duck such as mallard, teal, shoveler and
pintail are brightly coloured, often with areas of iridescent
plumage, but their females are relatively drab birds in feathers
of mottled and spotted brown. This characteristic tends to be
slightly less striking in the diving duck and even less so in the
sea duck species but, nevertheless, it is not difficult to tell
the sex of adult birds during the winter and spring.
One unusual but very important feature of the natural history of
wildfowl is the manner in which they moult their plumage. Most
other families of birds undergo a gradual moult during which the
flight feathers are shed and replaced gradually over a protracted
period. Wildfowl, on the other hand, moult all of their wing
feathers simultaneously with the result that they become
flightless for several weeks. The susceptibility of some male
duck to predation during this flightless period is reduced by the
fact that they typically moult out of their distinctive breeding
colours and assume a drab appearance similar to the females and
juveniles of their species. Other wildfowl, which do not exhibit
markedly different eclipse plumage, may undertake moult
migrations so that they spend the flightless weeks in places of
comparative sanctuary.
The feathering of wildfowl has other important characteristics
which particularly suit the birds to their aquatic lifestyles. As
a protection against the inhospitable environment which they
frequent, duck and geese have evolved a covering of
heat-retaining down beneath an outer coat of closely interlocking
feathers. A gland at the base of the bird's tail secretes
waterproofing oil and frequent preening serves both to distribute
this oil throughout the plumage and to maintain the interlock of
the feathers. Additional protection against heat loss is provided
by a subcutaneous layer of fat which, in healthy wildfowl, is
considerably thicker than that possessed by many other families
of birds.
Feeding Habits
Each species of duck or goose is also well adapted to its
particular feeding habits. Dabbling duck are broad-billed and
sieve water or mud to extract the small crustaceans or vegetable
particles which form the staple part of their diet while geese
and wigeon, being grazing birds, have shorter, more pointed
bills. Those wildfowl which feed on land have strong, centrally
placed legs well suited to walking whereas the diving duck are
efficient swimmers by virtue of shorter legs situated farther
towards the rear of their bodies.
In addition to physical differences, wildfowl have also evolved
behaviour patterns which reflect their feeding requirements. Many
species, especially in winter, engage in flock feeding and some,
such as the shoveler, appear to unconsciously co-operate by
feeding in long lines so that one bird can sieve the water which
has been disturbed by the feet of the duck in front.
Breeding
In their breeding habits wildfowl also demonstrate a considerable
degree of adaptation to their environment. Most duck species nest
at ground level and, in consequence, they can suffer fairly high
losses as a result of predation or flooding. Sitting duck may
fall prey to foxes or feral mink while gulls and skuas are a
threat to eggs and young ducklings. The survival of the species
in such adverse conditions is assisted by the fact that duck lay
fairly large clutches of eggs and the ducklings are able to walk
and swim within a few hours of hatching.
Geese, being larger birds, are less susceptible to predation and
tend to have a smaller brood size than most duck species. Both
parents normally share in the protection of eggs and goslings.
Young duck and geese grow at a rapid rate and those which breed
in Arctic areas have to be fully fledged and ready to undertake
an arduous migration by the end of the short northern summer. The
timing of the breeding cycle is extremely important and there is
evidence to suggest that day-length is the critical factor which
stimulates behaviour so as to ensure that chicks hatch at a time
of greatest food availability. This may be one of the reasons why
wildfowl collectors in temperate countries have difficulty in
breeding some of the species which spend the summer in the high
Arctic. It is possible that day-length in Britain never reaches
the threshold level necessary to induce breeding behaviour in
those birds.
Migration
Many behavioural features will be observed and noted by the
observant wildfowler but, above all else, he will be fascinated
by the annual cycle of migration which becomes as significant to
him as it is to the fowl themselves. Each year in April fowlers
watch with a little sadness as skeins of geese pass high over the
hills on their journey to more northern climes and then, come
mid-September, we will thrill to the music of pinkfeet as they
return from their breeding grounds once again. In October the
pinks are joined by their larger greylag cousins while, in other
parts of the country, similar migrations will be ending as
whitefronts splash down at Slimbridge and the ever-increasing
army of brent geese make their landfall in south-east England.
Pinkfooted geese migrating from Iceland to Scotland cover the
distance of over 800 miles in a single day but, at the other end
of the scale, duck such as wigeon, teal or pintail may have to
travel almost 2000 miles from their breeding territory in central
USSR and are likely to complete the journey in stages spread over
a period of several weeks.
The precise mechanism by which migration is guided is not yet
completely understood and it may differ considerably between
different species of migratory birds. The swallows and martins,
for example, appear to have highly developed directional
instincts and birds in their first year will successfully find
their way to their wintering grounds without the benefit of
previous experience or adult company. In contrast, it appears
probable that memory and experiential learning are of
considerably greater importance to the migrations of duck and
geese. Although there may be a degree of instinctive behaviour
involved in the timing of migrations and in navigating over ocean
areas, wildfowl seem to be able to alter their patterns of
movement to take account of environmental changes and will return
to places where food has been plentiful in former years whilst
forsaking previously favoured areas which have become
inhospitable. Geese especially tend to travel in family groups,
the oldest members of which will have experienced several annual
migration cycles.
In addition to the principal autumn and spring migrations, which
are a fairly commonplace phenomenon in the avian world, some
wildfowl species engage in pseudo-migrations. As previously
mentioned, certain duck undertake a moult migration to places of
relative safety prior to shedding their flight feathers. One
German inland lake is regularly visited by a flock of over 10,000
pochard and up to 250,000 sea duck moult in the shallow seas
around Denmark. Another mass movement of duck can be triggered by
the sudden onset of particularly hard weather in winter. If, for
instance, a severe freeze-up grips northern Germany and the
Netherlands, we may witness a migration of mallard, wigeon and
teal from those countries to eastern Britain.
When a wildfowler steps out on to the remote saltings he enters
the world of the wildfowl and, if he is to be successful in his
hunting, he must understand and appreciate the ways of his
quarry. Each fowling expedition is an adventure - an adventure
within which the discharging of his gun might be an infrequent
occurrence. To the true wildfowler the failure to fire a shot
does not detract from the enjoyment of his sport because he has
spent time in the wilderness of a dawning estuary, he has been
enthralled by the sight and sound of the fowl and he has learned
a little more about the habits of the wild birds which feature so
large in his daytime thoughts and in his night-time dreams.
IDENTIFICATION
In the bad old days of the sportsman-naturalist, times when any
bird which flew was fair game for the roving gunner and the rarer
the species, the more prized the trophy, there used to be a
saying "What's hit is history and what's missed is
mystery." Fortunately we have a more enlightened approach to
our sport today and the cardinal rule for fowlers is "Never
raise your gun until you have positively identified the bird as
legitimate quarry."
The problem facing all wildfowlers is that the run-of-the-mill
bird books have drawings or photographs of the duck and goose
species sitting obligingly on the water, presenting a nice
side-on view. When we are out on the marsh with dog and gun it is
more common for a grey shape to flip past our left shoulder in
the half-light of dawn or dusk.
Wildfowl identification under those conditions is a somewhat
different matter from leisurely admiring the duck on the village
pond on a sunny Sunday afternoon. Very often the plumage
colouring will be indiscernible and the fowler must rely upon
other "keys" to help him determine the species.
It takes a lot of experience before any shore shooter can
positively identify every duck or goose which he might encounter
but, before too long, he ought to be able to distinguish the
common quarry species from the common protected birds. The
descriptions which follow not only deal with the plumage
characteristics of the fowl which are most likely to be seen by
the longshore gunner, but also mention the more obvious
"keys" such as variations in wing beat speed, flashes
of light or dark colour, wing length to body length ratio and
differences in flight sound which the accomplished wildfowler
will recognise in that split second before the gun is raised.
Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)
The commonest and best known of all our duck, the mallard is a a
superb table bird, especially early in the season. The male has
an iridescent bottle-green head and neck, separated from its
chestnut breast by a narrow white neck ring. The underbody and
wing coverts are predominantly grey with the characteristic
white-edged, blue-purple speculum being a striking feature. Tail
coverts are black with the four central feathers upturned. A
greenish-yellow bill and orange legs complete the familiar
picture. The female mallard is a much less colourful bird of
mottled brown and paler underparts. Her bill is orange and the
legs are somewhat weaker in colour than those of the drake but
the iridescent speculum is common to both sexes. Juveniles and
the male in eclipse plumage are similar in general appearance to
the female. The mallard has a strong, fairly fast, level flight
with rapid wing beats. It is one of the largest duck. The drake
is normally silent in flight while the female emits the familiar
low "quack".
Wigeon (Anas penelope)
Many wildfowlers would suggest that the wigeon is the duck of the
estuary and there can be little doubt that a pack flighting
overhead, their characteristic whistle shrilling from a dark sky,
is guaranteed to set the blood racing through the veins of a
seasoned marsh gunner. Somewhat smaller than a mallard, the
wigeon is another duck which provides excellent eating as well as
sporting shooting. The male in winter plumage has a chestnut head
with a pale yellow forehead and crown, a pinkish-grey breast and
mainly grey back and flanks. The white forewing coverts show
boldly in flight, as do the very light underparts. The female and
juvenile are predominantly rusty brown mottled with dark chestnut
and they share the lighter belly of the male. Both sexes have a
dark green speculum which is slightly less prominent than that of
most dabbling duck. In eclipse, the male takes on the general
coloration of the female but retains his white shoulder patches.
The short pointed bill is typically grey with a dark tip and the
legs are dark grey or black. The wigeon has a rapid flight with
the wings often appearing sickle-shaped. It is medium sized and
the short bill, light belly and the white shoulders of the male
show up clearly in flight. The male has a high pitched whistle
while the female has a lower purr.
Teal (Anas crecca)
The European green-winged teal is the smallest duck on the
wildfowler's list but the male in full breeding plumage makes up
for his small size by his striking good looks. The glossy
chestnut head has an iridescent curving green stripe, with narrow
cream edging, running from the eye to the back of the neck. The
striated body plumage is well known to anglers who dress their
own flies and there is a white horizontal stripe above the wing.
The prominent green speculum is present in both sexes. The
female, juvenile and male in eclipse plumage are very similar
with their mottled browns and paler belly. The legs and bill of
both sexes are dark grey, tinged with brown. The teal has a very
rapid flight with small flocks frequently rising and dipping in
unison. The male has a "prip-prip" call whereas the
female "quacks" at a slightly higher pitch than a
mallard.
Garganey (Anas querquedula) (Protected)
The little garganey is the only duck which is exclusively a
summer visitor to Britain and, consequently, is not seen
frequently during the shooting season. Slightly larger than a
teal, the male in full plumage has a brown head and breast with a
sickle-shaped white band from above the eye to the nape of the
neck. The body is mottled grey-brown with paler sides and
black-edged white scapular feathers. The female, juvenile and
male in eclipse are largely grey-brown with darker mottling on
the wings. In both sexes the speculum is pale green and cream.
Pintail (Anas acuta)
The handsome pintail must be a strong contender for the
distinction of being Europe's most elegant wildfowl species. In
breeding plumage the male is resplendent in chocolate head and
neck with a white stripe extending upwards from breast to ear.
Grey underparts and flanks are set off by beautiful lanceolated
scapulars of black, yellow and grey and there is a pale yellow
patch in front of the distinctive black tail coverts. The female
shares the slender neck and body of the male but is generally a
light mottled chestnut with paler underparts. Juveniles are
similar to the female but males in eclipse are somewhat greyer
and may be distinguished by the bronze-green speculum on the
wing. Bill and legs are grey with a bluish tinge. The pintail has
a fast flight with very rapid wing beats. The male's
"pin" tail shows up prominently in flight but both
sexes are long, slender birds with slightly sickle-shaped wings.
The male has a lower pitched "prip" than the teal while
the female occasionally gives a rather weak mallard-like
"quack".
Shoveler (Anas clypeata)
A very distinctive bird, the shoveler displays the ultimate in
dabbling equipment - a very broad spatulate bill which gives an
immediate clue to the species' feeding habits. The drake in
breeding dress has a bottle-green head, white neck and chest,
dark chestnut flanks and underparts and dark brownish-grey wing
coverts. The colouring of the female is similar to that of other
dabbling duck but the shovel bill makes misidentification
unlikely. Both sexes have a green speculum and display a
blue-grey patch on the forewing. The shoveler has a rapid flight
with a rattling sound from the wings. It is medium size and the
light blue shoulders are prominent in flight. The large spatulate
bill often looks longer than the head and it rarely quacks while
flying.
Gadwall (Anas strepera)
Difficult to distinguish from a mallard when flying in poor
light, the gadwall is slightly smaller but very similar in build
and in flight pattern. The drake is predominantly grey with a
brown tinged back. The female is very mallard-like but shares the
white speculum of the male. The bill of the female has
conspicuous orange edges which, although not present in the drake
when in breeding plumage, are taken on in eclipse.
Tufted Duck (Aythya fuligula)
All of the species mentioned so far have been dabbling duck of
the genus Anas. With the tufted duck we come to the first member
of the diving duck genus Aythya which also includes the pochard
and the now-protected scaup. The "tuftie" is very
common on most waters in Britain and occurs both as a breeding
species and as a winter migrant. When in full breeding regalia
the male has a black head, chest, back and tail with pure white
flanks. The head is shot with purple and the chest often seems to
have a greenish tinge. The name of the duck derives from a
drooping black crest which is not normally obvious at a distance
but which, in fact, is fairly long. The bill is blue-grey with a
black tip, the legs are grey and the eye is bright orange. The
female's colouring is less contrasting than the male, her
upperparts being dark brown and the flanks pale rust. In eclipse
the male resembles the female but usually has lighter flanks.
Both the male in eclipse and the female have a shorter crest than
the breeding male. The tufted duck has a more fluttery flight
than the dabbling duck, it is of small to medium size and the
male's colour contrast is sometimes fairly clear. It rarely
quacks in flight.
Pochard (Aythya ferina)
In full breeding plumage the male pochard is a striking bird
displaying a red-brown head, black breast and throat and a
slate-grey back. The bill is blue-grey with a black tip and the
legs are dark grey. In eclipse the red eye of the male
distinguishes it from the dull brown female. The pochard has a
strong, fast flight. It is of medium size and the male has a low
whistle while the female occasionally gives out a deep-throated
"kurr".
Scaup (Aythya marila) (Protected)
Closely related to the tufted duck, the scaup may easily be
misidentified by a wildfowler. In breeding plumage the male has a
black head, shot with green, a black breast, light grey wings and
white flanks and belly. The female is predominantly brown with
paler flanks and underparts. Unlike the tufted duck, the scaup is
found mainly in sea areas and rarely will be encountered on
inland waters.
Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula)
The mature male goldeneye has an iridescent green head with a
prominent white patch between bill and eye. Its back is black and
the neck and underparts white or pale grey. The female has a
mainly grey body with a chestnut brown head. As the name suggest,
the eyes are golden yellow and the short bill and sloping
forehead give the head a triangular look. The flight of the
goldeneye is rapid and direct with a noticeable wing rattle. The
light underparts show up in flight.
Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna) (Protected)
In some localities the shelduck is so numerous that one might
wonder why it requires to be protected by law. Fortunately it is
so distinctive in appearance that there is never any excuse for
mistaking it for any other bird. Both sexes have a black neck and
head, a white body and a rich brown yoke at shoulder level. There
is a dark stripe down the underparts and the wing primaries are
black. The male may be distinguished by the knob at the base of
its bright red bill. The shelduck has a strong goose-like flight.
It is large in size and its contrasting markings are usually
visible, even when flying in poor light. The male occasionally
whistles and the female has a short, low "quack".
Eider (Somateria mollissima) (Protected)
The eider is best known for its down which at one time was
extremely popular as a bed quilt filling. Like the shelduck, the
eider is by no means uncommon and the reasons for affording it
protection are dubious. One consolation, however, is that neither
species is likely to be particularly palatable on account of
their marine habitat and diet. The male eider in full plumage is
predominantly white with black forehead, crown and underparts.
The rear sides of the head have a greenish tinge and there is a
pink hue in the breast feathers. The female is brown with dark
barring. The eider has a strong flight, often with a nose-down
aspect. It is of large size and heavily built. It frequently
flies very close to the ground and has a coarse voice.
Sea Duck and Sawbills
The more common sea duck will occasionally be seen by the coastal
wildfowler but all are protected and none are likely to be
misidentified as a quarry species. The common scoter (Melanitta
nigra) male is the only duck to have completely black plumage.
Its bill is grey and orange with a dark grey knob at the base.
The female is dark rust brown with fawn cheeks. The velvet scoter
(Melanitta fusca) is somewhat rarer in Britain than the common
scoter. The male may be distinguished by a white spot behind the
eye and a white wing patch. The female is brown but lacks the
extensive pale cheeks of the common scoter. The male long-tailed
duck (Clangula hyemalis) is the only duck to have three plumage
phases in its annual cycle. In early summer it is predominantly
brown with a white patch on the face and white flanks and
underparts. In this phase the characteristic long pointed tail is
present. In eclipse it loses the tail and becomes gradually
duller in coloration. The tail feathers are regrown in winter and
the head, scapulars and flanks are white, the eye surrounds are
grey and the ear and breast are brown. In contrast, the female
spends the entire year in dull brown with white sides to the neck
and head. She also lacks the long tail feathers of the male.
The goosander (Mergus merganser) and the red-breasted merganser
(Mergus serrator) have long serrated bills which give an
immediate clue to the diet of those duck, the major part of which
consists of small fish. The goosander is the larger of the two
but both are unusual in that the males have white and black
bodies and green-black heads while the bodies of the females are
grey and their heads are red-brown. Both species are protected.
Greylag Goose (Anser anser)
One of the larger grey geese, the greylag is the stock from which
most British farmyard geese are descended (unlike eastern Europe
where the bean goose gave rise to most farm stock). Both sexes
are brownish grey with paler grey forewings and white barred tail
coverts. The bill is orange in the western race and the legs are
flesh coloured. The heavy head and bill are more obvious in
flight than with other geese and the pale grey shoulders and
white rump show up clearly. It has a low "aung-aung"
call similar to farmyard geese.
Pinkfooted Goose (Anser branchyrhynchus)
Somewhat smaller and daintier than the greylag, the pinkfoot is
characterised by a chocolate brown head and neck. The body is
paler brown with bluish-grey tinges in the wing coverts and
darker grey in the tail. The rump, as with all grey geese, is
white. The bill of the pinkfoot is smaller and neater than that
of the greylag, being pink coloured with variable black markings
at base and tip. As the name suggests, the legs and feet are
pink. In flight the dark neck and head are obvious and, when
compared to a greylag, its slender shape and neat head are clear.
It has the familiar "wink-wink-wink" call.
Whitefronted Goose (Anser albifrons) (Protected in Scotland)
The Greenland whitefront is a dark goose, mainly grey-brown with
black traverse barring across the lower breast and belly. Adults
have a distinctive white forehead. The bill and legs are bright
orange. Birds of the European race tend to have an overall
lighter plumage and a pink bill. It is of medium to large size
and in flight can be seen to have a darker, more slender head
than the greylag. It gives out a high pitched
"hank-hank-hank" call.
Bean Goose (Anser fabalis) (Protected)
The bean goose is a very large bird with dark brown neck and head
and dull brown underparts. The breast is light brown, there are
pale edgings to the wing coverts and the bill is orange with
black markings. In flight, with no clues as to scale, it would be
forgivable (but illegal) to mistake a bean goose for a pinkfoot.
Fortunately this error is only likely to be made in Norfolk or
near the Solway.
Barnacle Goose (Branta leucopsis) (Protected)
Both sexes have a black crown, neck and breast with white cheeks.
The back is grey and the underparts are off-white. In flight it
is a smallish goose with the white face and black breast clear.
It rarely flies in formation, preferring loose flocks. The voices
of a flock of barnacles sounds like the "yipping" of a
pack of small dogs.
Brent Goose (Branta bernicla) (Protected)
There are two distinct sub-species of brent geese; the
light-bellied race breeds in Greenland and Spitzbergen and
winters in Ireland and at Lindisfarne while the dark-bellied
Siberian population migrates to the Low Countries and south-east
England in winter. This latter race has increased dramatically in
recent years and a change in habits has taken place with the
flocks partially forsaking the salt marsh and adapting to feeding
on agricultural land. Both races have a black head, breast and
neck and a dark grey-brown back. There is a light patch on each
side of the neck and, as the names suggest, the Atlantic
population has a lighter belly than the Siberian race. In flight
the brent has fast wingbeats and frequently flies in tight packs.
It is often silent and is more likely to be mistaken for a
mallard than for any other goose.
Canada Goose (Branta canadensis)
Introduced from North America, the Canada goose is now fairly
common in some parts of Britain and, if truly wild, can be a
worthy quarry for the wildfowler. The head and neck are black
with a white patch circling from cheek to chin. The back is brown
and the breast and belly greyish brown with variable traverse
barring. In flight the Canada is a large, heavy goose and its
"honk-honk" call gives it the nickname
"honker" in America.
This file is an
extract from "Fowler in the Wild" by Eric Begbie. It
may be reproduced, in whole or in part, by magazines or other
publications with the prior permission of the author.